Chapter9

=//Learning: Principles and Applications//=

Key Terms

 * **Classical Coditioning**: A learning procedure in which as sociations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.
 * **Neutral Stimulus**: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response.
 * **Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)**: An event that elicits a certain predictable response without previous training.
 * **Unconditioned Response (UCR)**: An organisn's automatic or natural reacion to a stimulus.
 * **Conditioned Stimulus (CS)**: A once neutral event that elicits a givin response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
 * **Conditioned Response (CR)**: The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
 * **Generalization**: Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli.
 * **Discrimination**: The ability to respond differently to similar but distint stimuli.
 * **Extinction**: The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatdly presented withour the unconditioned stimulus.

Summary
People acquire certain behaviors through classical conditioning, a learning procedure in which associations are made between an unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus. Ivan Pavlov was the founding father of classical conditioning only by mear chance. He used the term unconditioned to refer to stimuli and the automatic, invontary responses they caused. Generalization and discrimination are complenentary processes and are part of every day life. Both may occur spontaneously in some situations, and both can be tought in others.

Classical conditioned responses, like any other behavior, is subject to change. Even through a classically conditioned response may be extingushed. This does not mean that the conditioned response has been completely unlearned. Classical conditioning helps animals and humans predict what is going to happen. It provides information that may be helpful to their survival.



Key Terms

 * **Operant Conditioning**: Learning in which a certain action is feinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence.
 * **Reinforcement**: Stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.
 * **Primary Reinforcer**: Stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water.
 * **Secondary Reinforcer**: Stimulus such as mone taht becomes reinforcing through its link with primary reinforcer.
 * **Fixed-Ratio Schedule**: Schedule of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained.
 * **Variable-Ratio Schedule**: Schedule of renforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.
 * **Fixed-Interval Schedule**: Schedule of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement.
 * **Variable-Interval Schedule**: Schedule of reinforcement in which chaninging amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement.
 * **Shaping**: Technique in which the desired bahavior is "molded" by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward.
 * **Response Chain**: Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next.
 * **Aversive Control**: Process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli.
 * **Negative Reinforcement**: Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs.
 * **Escape Conditioning**: Training of an organism to remove or terminate an unplesant stimulus.
 * **Avoidance Conditioning**: Training of an organism to withdraw from an unpleasant stimulus before it starts.

Summary
Operant conditioning means that human behavior is influnced by one's history of rewards and punishment. B.F. Skinner has been the psychologist most closely associated with operant conditioning. In operant conditioning ther are reinforcers. The reinforcers are stimuli that increase the liklihood that certain behaviors will be repeated. Behavior is reinforced accordingly to continious or partial reinforcement schedules that are based on numbers of responses or times of responses.



Key Terms

 * **Social Learning**: Form of learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others.
 * **Cognitive Learning**: Form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation.
 * **Cognitive Map**: A mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events.
 * **Latent Learning**: Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior.
 * **Learned Helplessness**: Condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief taht the situation a uncontrollable.
 * **Modeling**: Learning by imitating others; copying behavior.
 * **Behavior Modification**: Systematic application of learning principles to change people's actions and feelings.
 * **Token Economy**: Conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valuless objecs, which can be acumulated and exchanged  for valed rewards.